The Textual Sources of Peshwa Social Policy: Epigraphy, Bakhar Narratives, and Archival Records on Late Maratha Caste Rules

In his 1936 treatise Annihilation of Caste, B.R. Ambedkar drew upon specific instances of social exclusion under Peshwa rule in Poona to illustrate the operational mechanics of untouchability. Ambedkar recorded that during the late Maratha period, Dalits were forbidden from entering Poona between 3 p.m. and 9 a.m. due to the length of their shadows. He further noted that Dalits were required to carry an earthen pot around their neck to catch spittle and string a broom from their waist to sweep away their footprints as they walked.

For modern historians, these vivid descriptions raise an archival question: how are these social enforcement policies documented in the surviving primary sources of the Maratha state? Examining 18th-century administrative bundles (rumals), epigraphic decrees, bakhar (historical narrative) literature, and early British colonial surveys reveals a complex state machinery navigating ritual hierarchy, fiscal collection, and social dispute resolution.

Administrative Records and State Decrees in Peshwa Rumals

The primary administrative archive of the Maratha state rests in the Peshwa Daftar in Pune, containing millions of documents tied in cloth bundles known as rumals. Evidence shows that the Peshwa administration operated as an active arbiter of caste boundaries, enforcing normative codes derived from dharmashastra (legal treatise) traditions.

Administrative orders issued by the Peshwa secretariat (huzur daftar) regularly ruled on caste compliance, ritual privileges, and inter-caste disputes. The state levied fines on individuals who breached caste rules or engaged in inter-dining across prescribed boundaries. In May 1784, for instance, government orders directed that untouchable pilgrims visiting the samadhi of the Bhakti saint Chokhamela in Pandharpur had to perform their worship from a designated distance near a stone lamp pillar to prevent physical contact with Brahmin worshippers in the narrow alley.

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│              Late Maratha State Archive                 │
├────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┤
│ Administrative Rumals      │ State decrees, caste fines │
│ Epigraphic Inscriptions    │ Public land & tax grants   │
│ Bakhar Narratives          │ Court memoirs, histories   │
│ Early Colonial Surveys     │ Regional gazetteers        │
└────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────┘

The administrative rumals demonstrate that the Peshwa state maintained written records of caste status and enforced endogamy among various social groups. However, explicit state decrees mandating every Dalit to physically wear an earthen pot or drag a broom do not appear as general statutory laws in the published selections of the Peshwa administrative diaries (Peshwe Dafter). Instead, administrative orders focused on specific spatial restrictions, tax obligations, village service duties (watans), and resolving boundary disputes between caste councils.

Epigraphy and Bakhar Texts

Epigraphic evidence from the 18th-century Maratha territories consists primarily of stone and copper-plate inscriptions recording land grants (inaam), temple endowments, and public works. These inscriptions reflect official state patronage and property transfers. While epigraphic records outline tax exemptions and village rights for communities including Mahars and Mangs, they rarely detail day-to-day social segregation rules or physical dress mandates.

In contrast, bakhar literature—prose narrative histories written in Marathi during and after the 18th century—provides insight into courtly perceptions and political events. Texts like the Sabhasad Bakhar (written in 1697) and later 18th-century bakhars focus heavily on military campaigns, succession battles, and diplomatic exchanges. While bakhars frequently reference the ideal social order based on chaturvarnya (four-varna social structure), they generally present caste hierarchy as a normative background rather than codifying detailed penal instructions for lower-caste dress or mobility.

Colonial Documentation and Oral Traditions

⚖ Scholarly debate exists regarding the transmission path of specific details like the pot and broom rules into modern historiography.

One view holds that these rules were local customs enforced in the capital city of Poona during the late 18th century under the reign of Peshwa Baji Rao II, preserved through oral traditions and later recorded in colonial gazetteers such as the Bombay Gazetteer. In Annihilation of Caste, Ambedkar cited 19th-century colonial compilers and regional gazetteers that documented these enforcement practices.

An alternative scholarly view argues that while social exclusion and untouchability were strictly enforced by state power and local village councils, the specific imagery of pots and brooms reflects localized punitive measures or regional oral accounts rather than uniform, state-wide statutory legislation found in the official chancery records.

The Historical Gap

The historical record confirms that the late Maratha state actively used its judicial authority to enforce caste rules, penalize ritual transgressions, and restrict physical access to sacred and public spaces. The primary archive contained in the rumals provides direct proof of state-sanctioned caste regulation. At the same time, the gap between explicit administrative decrees in state registers and descriptions found in early colonial gazetteers highlights the challenge of reconstructing daily social enforcement from state-level tax and judicial archives alone.