The Yoga of Patanjali is a meta-psychological technique based upon the philosophy of the Sankhya. Its metaphysics is metapsychology based upon the principle that the outward reality has its roots in the inward and that the realization of the ultimate truth is, therefore, the realization of the most inward being in man, namely, the atman. And by the time the dtman is realized, every stage of reality lower than it must have been realized. The Sankhya maintains that everything evolves out of Prakrti through its first evolute, reason (buddhi, Mahat). Buddhi is called dtta by Patanjali. And it is conscious, because it reflects the consciousness of the dtman; it is the highest stage of our conscious being, the deepest, and the infinite, since it is the source of all that we are conscious of, including our ego. The world, the Sankya and the Yoga maintain, is due to the evolutionary process of reason, due to its transformation.1 The bondage of the dtman is due to its being entangled in this transformation; its liberation lies in disentangling
itself from that process.
We should, again, remind ourselves here that reason is not merely the reasoning or inferring process, but has an ontological significance as in the philosophies of Heraclitus, Pythagoras, Plato, the Stoics and the Neo-Platonists in the West. Otherwise, we cannot understand the significance of the Sankyha and the Yoga.
METAPHYSICS
It has already been said that the metaphysics of the Yoga is the same as that of the Sankhya, except for the former's acceptance of the reality of God (Isvara). But the Yoga system can stand even without the concept of God, because the concept does not play a necessary role in the Yoga metaphysics. However, the Yoga gives a few proofs for God's existence, (1) The scriptures, or Vedas, say that God exists, and they are infallible. Therefore, God must exist. (2) There is gradation of powers and capabilities in the world. Some men have more strength, more knowledge, and more power than others. And this gradation must reach the highest degree, at which degree the being concerned must have infinite strength, knowledge and power. Such a being is God. (3) The creation of the world is due to the coming into contact of atman and Prakrti, although they are absolutely disparate entities. Some being must be there to bring them together. That being is God. (4) Prakrti has to transform itself into the world according to the merits and demerits of the atman. The soul has to take birth, enjoy and suffer in accordance with its own actions. And Prakrti must create the conditions for such pleasures and pains. The processes of the blind, insentient Prakrti have therefore to be supervised by an intelligent being. Such an intelligent being is God.
Few people will admit that these proofs are conclusive. Patanjali introduces God only to suggest an easier way to salvation than that of the arduous Yoga technique, which he expounds. God is the infinite, eternal spirit, which is not polluted by ethical and mental impurities. By meditating on Him one can obtain salvation. And meditation on Him is enhanced by complete devotion to Him.
The Essence of Yoga
Since everything is due to the transformation of reason (citta, buddhi), Yoga consists of controlling the transformations. But since everything is a modification of this citta, control over citta gives the power of control over everything. That is why the yogi is said to acquire supernatural powers, which also are described by Patanjali. The student is advised not to practise Yoga for the sake of supernatural powers, for practically no one is available as a guide and teacher of such practices, and without proper guides the practices may produce mental diseases. Patanjali himself was aware of the difficulties and dangers. And for a true yogi, who is in search of salvation, supernatural powers are temptations and hindrances.
The use of the word reason, although it is associated with the concept of the Logos in Greek philosophy, may mislead the English-speaking reader, and the word citta itself will therefore be used. Citta has five functions (vrttis) or kinds of modification: (i) Valid cognition (pramana) is modification according to perception, inference, and verbal testimony. Through such modifications we know the objects of the world as they exist. (2) Invalid cognition (yiparyaya) is modification of citta, which gives us false knowledge. Corresponding to this modification of the citta, there is no object. Such cognitions are illusions. (3) Ideas formed through mere abstraction or verbal or grammatical transformation (yikalpa) also have no corresponding existing objects. For instance, 'the hole in the sky', 'the horse's egg', 'the sky-lotus', etc., are only grammatical formations. We understand what the expressions mean, but what they mean is either imaginary or a mere grammatical verbal formation. Again, 'the son of Mr X' seems to convey the idea that, because there is a corresponding object to 'the son' and 'Mr X', there must be a corresponding object to 'of. But there is no such object. So 'of has no corresponding object. (4) Memory (smrti) is another modification of citta. (5) Sleep (nidra) is also a modification of citta. Sleep is a function, it is not the absence of every function, according to Patanjali.
It is the nature of citta to be undergoing some modification or other continually without break. The control of citta is the control of these modifications. Their control does not mean killing citta but, fixing it constantly on something, i.e. making it retain one modification, or object. Such a fixing is concentration. It has five stages. In the first stage (ksipta, the agitated), citta constantly moves from one object to another, does not attend to any, and is always agitated. In the second stage (mudha, the torpid), when the attempt is made forcibly to fix it on something, citta becomes dull and tends to enter sleep. In the third stage (viksipta, the distracted), citta attends to some object for a moment, then turns to another, and then to still another, and so on. When it attends to one object, the thought of other objects arises, and its attention is violently drawn away. In the fourth stage (ekagra, the focussed), citta rests on a particular object for a long time. In this stage, the processes of mind do not completely cease, but are under control. In the fifth stage (niruddha, the arrested), the processes are completely stopped, and meditation becomes perfect.
It is not easy for man to reach the last stage, because of five impurities (klesas) that afflict the dtman. (1) Ignorance (avidya) prevents him from discriminating between the eternal and non-eternal, and blinds him to the true nature of things. (2) The false notion of one's ego (asmha) makes a man think that he is the particular individual, and say: 'Here I am', as the particular man. (3) Desire and attachment (raga) to pleasures harden his sense of being a particular individual. (4) Hatred of and aversion (dvesa) from pains also contribute to the same end. (5) The instinctive attachment to one's particular being and fear of losing that being in death (abhinivesa) also prevent a man from rising above the particularity of his ego. These five hindrances prevent man from rising above his citta in order to control it, and keep him within its processes.
The eight limbs of yoga are the means for the final realization of the atman in the highest trance (samddhi) which is essentially free from the forms of citta. The earier of the eight lead to the later, but one may attempt to practise all together. But when one starts the practices, the emphasis should be on the earlier ones.
1. The first is self-restraint (yama). It consists of (a) truthfulness, (b) non-stealing, (c) celibacy, (J) non-injury and (e) non-acceptance of gifts from others. The last is emphasized, because people generally think that they can earn merit by bestowing valuable gifts upon yogis. The yogis then become rich, and wealth is one of the greatest temptations. The yogi should keep only what is absolutely necessary to keep his body and soul together.
2. The second limb consists of the observance of certain rules of conduct (niyama). (a) One should keep both his body and mind pure (sauca). He should cultivate all the good attitudes like friendliness, kindness, cheerfulness and indifference to the vices of others. He should keep his body pure not only by taking proper baths, but also by taking only pure food, for certain kinds of food not only affect the body but also the mind. (£) The second rule of conduct is the practice of contentment (santosa cheerfulness). One should be cheerfully content with what one has and should not long for what one does not have. Otherwise, his mind constantly thinks of the ways and means for obtaining such things, becomes agitated, and will be incapable of concentration. (c) The third is penance. (J) The fourth is the constant study of books on spiritual knowledge (svddhydya). Such a study keeps only good ideas before mind. And (e) one should meditate on God (isvarapranidhana), and surrender oneself to Him.
3. The third limb is the practice of the bodily postures (dsanas); it consists of developing sitting postures conducive to long meditation and of exercises for the control of the body and its health. There are many kinds of such postures, a few of which can be easily practised; but the others should be practised only with the guidance of one who knows, as otherwise they will be dangerous. If a man cannot sit long, and if his limbs give pain, he cannot meditate. So he has not only to select the sitting posture best suited for his body, but also practise it. Again, if he suffers from bodily ailments and irregularities of the involuntary system, he cannot concentrate. For overcoming such irregularities also, certain practices are prescribed. But they should be learnt only from those who have already practised them, for the control of the involuntary system is not easy, and any mistake committed may prove dangerous.
4. Pranayama, or the control of breath, is the fourth limb. It consists of the control of inhalation (puraka), retention (kumbhaka), and exhalation (recaka). It is to be started with each of the three parts for a short period, gradually prolonging it. Its aim is the control of the vital principle in the body, and also the steadiness of mind. As breath becomes steady, mind also becomes steady. The practice of pranayama also needs the guidance of adepts.
5. The next step in yoga is the withdrawal of the senses from their objects (pratydhdra). This withdrawal is the inward movement of mind from the objects to reason (Mahat, buddhi, citta). In this state, there may be sounds around; but the ear does not hear them; there may be colours in front, but the eye does not see them; for mind is fixed upon something else. The pysical senses are there, but their psychological counterparts are withdrawn into mind and become part and parcel of citta. From this point begins psychological yoga, called antarangasddhana (internal practice). The first four are physical yoga, called bahiran-gasddhana (external practice). External practice is only an aid to internal practice, which is of primary importance.
6. Dharana or holding on is the keeping of the object of concentration continually before us. It is uninterrupted attention to the object, without disturbance or agitation. In this state, mind knows only the object of concentration, and nothing else.
7. Dhyana or meditation is the spontaneous flow of the process of citta in the pattern of the object of concentration. We have seen that, according to the Sankhya, the object as cognized is only a modification of citta. The nature of citta is to be a constant flow, and ordinarily the pattern of this flow changes from object to object. In dhyana the flow sticks spontaneously and without effort to the same object. In dhdrana also the object is held continually before citta, but it is done only with effort. That is, when dharana matures, it becomes dhyana.
8. But when dhyana matures, it becomes samadhi. Samadhi is often translated as trance, etc. which does not convey its true significance because of the association these words have in the English language. Literally, the word means, in this context, perfect and complete knowing or placing of mind (sam + a + dhi). In this state, the contemplating consciousness becomes, as it were, the object contemplated. Contemplation becomes the contemplated, thought becomes the object. In dhyana, citta knows itself also when it is conscious of the object. But in samadhi, citta does not know itself, but only the object; it becomes, as it were, the object.
It should be noted that such a samadhi is not the completion of yoga, which is complete cessation of all the functions of citta. But since in this samadhi, the object is present, and since the object is a modification of citta, we cannot say that the functioning of citta is completely stopped. Only a strong control of citta has been achieved. The functions of citta can be said to have completely stopped, only when consciousness goes back to its origin, the atman, or Purusa. The cessation of the functions of citta depend, therefore, on what object it meditates. If it concentrates on the figure of Christ or Buddha, it becomes, as it were, Christ or Buddha. The phrase 'as it were' is important, because citta does not actually become Christ or Buddha, but enters that figure so completely that it becomes unaware of itself. If it does not meditate upon an image, but upon a real object, it enters that real object and can know its internal constitution. If citta meditates upon its own inward being, then it will know reality itself.
The Nyaya has a very elaborate theory of perception, and analyses it from different points of view. First, there is the difference between ordinary and extra-ordinary perception. Ordinary perception is what we usually have, the perception of a pot, a pen, a flower, and so on. But the Nyaya recognizes three kinds of extra-ordinary perceptions, which are not due to the usual sense-contact with the objects and which have each a peculiar kind of contact. The first is called cognition obtained through contact with the universal (samanyalaksana). The second kind of perception is cognition due to cognitive association. Looking at a pigeon, I say 'That is soft', even without touching it. The third kind of extra-ordinary perception is due to Yoga. A yogi can even see atoms without the aid of his senses. He can see objects hundreds and thousands of miles away, and can look through the minds and thoughts of others.
Source: Philosophical Traditions of India, P. T. Raju |
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